Extended Abstract

Introduction

Phobias, among the most common anxiety disorders, are characterized by persistent, irrational fears of specific objects or situations, often resulting in significant avoidance behaviors. Aquaphobia, or the fear of water, is a specific phobia within the natural environment category, which can profoundly influence behavior in aquatic settings and elevate drowning risks. The World Health Organization (2021) reports over 236,000 annual drowning deaths globally, with aquaphobia identified as a notable risk factor. The etiology of aquaphobia is often traced to traumatic childhood experiences, such as unintentional submersion or improper swimming instruction, which can foster lasting fear responses. The degree of familiarity with water significantly impacts swimming-related fear. Individuals with limited aquatic exposure often lack the skills and confidence needed to navigate water environments, leading to heightened fear. Conversely, prolonged swimming experience can reduce fear through gradual exposure and skill mastery. Demographic factors, including age and gender, also influence phobia intensity. Women, due to physiological differences and social factors such as limited access to sports training and heightened sensitivity to environmental threats, tend to report higher fear levels. Older adults may experience increased fear due to age-related declines in physical capabilities, such as muscle strength, balance, and flexibility, which can amplify feelings of insecurity in unstable environments like water. In contrast, children and adolescents, supported by parents and coaches, often exhibit lower fear levels due to structured training and safety education.

Geographical and cultural contexts further shape aquaphobia prevalence. In regions with limited water access, such as central Iran, individuals may develop greater fear due to minimal exposure. Coastal areas, like northern and southern Iran, benefit from a swimming culture and better aquatic facilities, which can mitigate fear. These patterns align with Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory, which posits that behaviors and attitudes are shaped through observation and experience in social settings. Environmental psychology, as highlighted by Gifford (2007), also suggests that perceptions of safety or danger in natural environments are influenced by prior experiences, environmental education, and cultural contexts, which can either amplify or alleviate fear responses.

Given the absence of established norms for assessing swimming phobia in Iran, this study aimed to develop norms for the Swimming Phobia Questionnaire, designed by Sardari, Shahabi, and Zeidabadi (2020), and to compare fear levels based on age, gender, geographical region, and water familiarity. The questionnaire, comprising 31 items across two components—fear of evaluation (negative judgments by self or others) and fear of water (physical and emotional reactions to water)—employs a five-point Likert scale and demonstrates robust psychometric properties (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.92). By establishing these norms, the study seeks to enhance screening processes, inform targeted educational interventions, and contribute to reducing drowning incidents and improving safety in aquatic environments.

Method:

Research design

This study utilized a descriptive-survey design with a cross-sectional approach, classified as applied research.

Participants

The target population included individuals aged nine and older from selected cities across five geographical regions of Iran. north (Rasht), south (Shiraz, Bandar Abbas), east (Mashhad), west (Kermanshah), and center (Tehran, Isfahan) who had at least one experience entering a swimming pool. These cities were purposively selected to reflect Iran’s geographical, cultural, and climatic diversity, enhancing the generalizability of findings. Using Cochran’s formula for an unlimited population, a minimum sample size of 384 was calculated, but 701 participants were recruited to strengthen the study’s robustness. The sample distribution was as follows: Rasht (81), Shiraz (96), Bandar Abbas (88), Mashhad (93), Kermanshah (87), Tehran (162), and Isfahan (94).

Materials

Data were collected using the Swimming Phobia Questionnaire (Sardari et al., 2020), a 31-item instrument assessing psychological dimensions of swimming fear. The questionnaire comprises two components: evaluations (addressing negative thoughts, dysfunctional beliefs, and threat-related predictions, e.g., fear of drowning or losing control) and phobias (emotional and physical reactions, e.g., anxiety, palpitations, or shortness of breath in water-related situations). Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale (from “very much” to “very little”), with higher scores indicating greater fear. The tool exhibited strong psychometric properties, with a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) of 0.93, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) of 0.97, and Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92.

Procedure

The questionnaire was administered online via survey software, accessible to participants for 15 days. Respondents completed it in a calm setting, and demographic data (age, gender, geographical region, and water familiarity) were also collected. Four participants were excluded due to outlier data, resulting in a final sample of 697.

Data analysis

Data analysis involved descriptive statistics (charts, measures of central tendency, dispersion, and percentiles) and non-parametric tests (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U) due to non-normal data distribution. Analyses were conducted using SPSS version 21, with a significance level of 0.05.

Results:

Findings indicated that participants aged 11–19 years, those from southern Iran, males, and individuals with over 10 years of water familiarity reported the lowest scores on the overall Swimming Phobia Questionnaire and its subscales (fear of evaluation and fear of water). Percentile analyses revealed that the 11–19 age group exhibited the lowest fear scores across all percentiles (10th to 90th), while those over 40 years reported the highest. Geographically, participants from southern and central regions scored lowest on overall fear, whereas those from western regions scored highest. Women consistently reported higher fear scores than men on the overall scale and fear of water subscale, though no significant gender difference was observed in the fear of evaluation subscale at the 90th percentile. Participants with less than three years of water familiarity exhibited the highest fear scores, while those with over 10 years scored the lowest across all scales.

Kruskal-Wallis tests confirmed significant differences in fear scores based on age and water familiarity (p < 0.05), but not geographical region. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed significant gender differences in overall fear and fear of water (p < 0.001), but not in fear of evaluation. Significant differences were also observed across age groups and water familiarity levels, with younger participants and those with greater water experience demonstrating lower fear levels. Specifically, significant differences were found between the 11–19 and 20–39 age groups in overall fear (p = 0.002) and fear of water (p = 0.001), and between the 11–19 and over-40 groups in all subscales (p ≤ 0.006). Similarly, significant differences were noted across water familiarity groups, with those having less than three years of experience showing higher fear compared to those with 3–10 years (p ≤ 0.015) or over 10 years (p < 0.001).

Discussion:

This study successfully established norms for the Swimming Phobia Questionnaire, revealing significant variations in fear of swimming based on age, gender, and water familiarity, but not geographical region. Younger individuals (11–19 years) exhibited the lowest fear levels, likely due to parental support, structured training, and fewer traumatic experiences, while those over 40 reported the highest fear, possibly due to age-related declines in physical and psychological functioning. Women displayed higher fear levels than men, potentially attributable to cultural barriers, limited access to aquatic facilities, and physiological differences. Greater water familiarity was associated with reduced fear, highlighting the importance of exposure and skill development. These findings align with social learning theory and environmental psychology, which emphasize the roles of experience, observation, and cultural context in shaping fear responses. The lack of significant geographical differences may reflect widespread exposure to drowning-related warnings through media or family, leveling fear across regions. The developed norms provide a valuable tool for screening and designing targeted interventions to mitigate swimming phobia, enhance aquatic safety, and reduce drowning risks in Iran.

Conclusion:

The results of this study indicate that fear of swimming is influenced by several factors, including age, gender, and duration of water familiarity. However, geographical location does not appear to have a significant effect. Individuals aged 11 to 19 reported the lowest levels of fear, likely due to parental support, formal education, and higher levels of assertiveness. In contrast, individuals over the age of 40 exhibited the highest levels of fear, which may be attributed to declining physical and cognitive abilities. Additionally, women demonstrated greater fear than men, influenced by both cultural expectations and physical considerations. Participants with less than three years of water experience were also more likely to report fear, compared to those with over ten years of experience. These findings can inform screening protocols to identify individuals who may benefit from psychological or educational interventions aimed at reducing fear of swimming.

Keywords:

Norms, Questionnaire, Fear of Swimming, Drowning.

Article message

This study showed that fear of swimming is influenced by age, gender, and level of familiarity with water, but not by geographical location. These results can serve as benchmarks for identifying individuals with a fear of swimming who may require psychological or educational interventions.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization of the article and writing of the original and subsequent drafts.

Data Availability Statement

Data available on request from the authors.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all participants who generously contributed their time and experiences to this study.

Ethical considerations

The authors avoided data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and misconduct.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no conflict of interest.